Manifesto Research Group
Standard Coding Categories Used to Code Party Election Programmes

Each sentence is counted into one of the following categories:

DOMAIN 1: External Relations

101 Foreign Special Relationships: Positive

Favourable mentions of particular countries with which the manifesto country has a special relationship. For example, in the British case: former colonies; in the German case: East Germany; in the Swedish case: the rest of Scandinavia; the need for co-operation with and/or aid to such countries.

102 Foreign Special Relationships: Negative

Negative mentions of particular countries with which the manifesto country has a special relationship; otherwise as 101, but negative.

103 Anti-Imperialism

Negative references to exerting strong influence (political, military or commercial) over other states; negative references to controlling other countries as if they were part of an empire; favourable mentions of decolonization; favourable references to greater self-government and independence for colonies; negative references to the imperial behaviour of the manifesto and/or other countries.

104 Military: Positive

Need to maintain or increase military expenditure; modernizing armed forces and improvement in military strength; rearmament and self-defence; need to keep military treaty obligations; need to secure adequate manpower in the military.

105 Military: Negative

Favourable mentions of decreasing military expenditures; disarmament; “evils of war”; promises to reduce conscription, otherwise as 104, but negative.

106 Peace

Peace as a general goal; declarations of belief in peace and peaceful means of solving crises; desirability of countries joining in negotiations with hostile countries.

107 Internationalism: Positive

Need for international co-operation; co-operation with specific countries other than those coded in 101; need for aid to developing countries; need for world planning of resources; need for international courts; support for any international goal or world state; support for UN.

108 European Community: Positive

Favourable mentions of European Community in general; desirability of expanding the European Community and/or of increasing its competence; desirability of the manifesto country joining (or remaining a member).

109 Internationalism: Negative

Favourable mentions of national independence and sovereignty as opposed to internationalism; otherwise as 107, but negative.

110 European Community: Negative

Hostile mentions of the European Community; opposition to specific European policies which are preferred by European authorities; otherwise as 108, but negative.

Favourable mentions of importance of personal freedom and civil rights; freedom from bureaucratic control; freedom of speech; freedom from coercion in the political and economic spheres; individualism in the manifesto country and in other countries.

Favourable mentions of democracy as a method or goal in national and other organizations; involvement of all citizens in decision-making, as well as generalized support for the manifesto country’s democracy.

Support for specific aspects of the constitution; use of constitutionalism as an argument for policy as well as general approval of the constitutional way of doing things.

Opposition to the constitution in general or to specific aspects; otherwise as 203, but negative.

Support for federalism or devolution; more regional autonomy for policy or economy; support for keeping up local and regional customs and symbols; favourable mentions of special consideration for local areas; deference to local expertise.

Opposition to political decision-making at lower political levels; support for more centralization in political and administrative procedures; otherwise as 301, but negative.

Need for efficiency and economy in government and administration; cutting down civil service; improving governmental procedures; general appeal to make the process of government and administration cheaper and more effective.

Need to eliminate corruption, and associated abuse, in political and public life.

Favourable mentions of strong government, including government stability; manifesto party’s competence to govern and/or other party’s lack of such competence.

Favourable mentions of free enterprise capitalism; superiority of individual enterprise over state and control systems; favourable mentions of private property rights, personal enterprise and initiative; need for unhampered individual enterprises.

Need for wage and tax policies to induce enterprise; encouragement to start enterprises; need for financial and other incentives.

Need for regulations designed to make private enterprises work better; actions against monopolies and trusts, and in defence of consumer and small business; encouraging economic competition; social market economy

Favourable mentions of long-standing economic planning of a consultative or indicative nature, need for government to create such a plan.

Favourable mentions of the need for the collaboration of employers and trade union organizations in overall economic planning and direction through the medium of tripartite bodies of government, employers, and trade unions.

Favourable mentions of extension or maintenance of tariffs to protect internal markets; other domestic economic protectionism such as quota restrictions.

Statements of intent to pursue any economic goals not covered by other categories in domain 4. Note: This category is created to catch an overall interest of parties in economics and, therefore, covers a variety of economic goals.

Demand-oriented economic policy; economic policy devoted to the reduction of depressions and/or to increase private demand through increasing public demand and/or through increasing social expenditures.

Need to encourage or facilitate greater production; need to take measures to aid this; appeal for greater production and importance of productivity to the economy; the paradigm of growth.

Importance of modernization of industry and methods of transport and communication; importance of science and technological developments in industry; need for training and research. Note: This does not imply education in general (see category 506).

General need for direct government control of economy; control over prices, wages, rents, etc.

Government ownership, partial or complete, including government ownership of land.

Need for traditional economic orthodoxy, e.g. reduction of budget deficits, retrenchment in crisis, thrift and savings; support for traditional economic institutions such as stock market and banking system; support for strong currency.

Preservation of countryside, forests, etc.; general preservation of natural resources against selfish interests; proper use of national parks; soil banks, etc.; environmental improvement.

Need to provide cultural and leisure facilities including arts and sport; need to spend money on museums, art galleries etc.; need to encourage worthwhile leisure activities and cultural mass media.

Concept of equality; need for fair treatment of all people; special protection for underprivileged; need for fair distribution of resources; removal of class barriers; end of discrimination such as racial or sexual discrimination, etc.

Favourable mentions of need to introduce, maintain or expand any social service or social security scheme; support for social services such as health service or social housing. Note: This category excludes education.

Limiting expenditure on social services or social security; otherwise as 504, but negative.

Need to expand and/or improve educational provision at all level. Note: This excludes technical training which is coded under 411.

Appeals to patriotism and/or nationalism; suspension of some freedoms in order to protect the state against subversion; support for established national ideas.

Against patriotism and/or nationalism; opposition to the existing national state; otherwise as 601, but negative.

Favourable mentions of traditional moral values; prohibition, censorship and suppression of immorality and unseemly behaviour; maintenance and stability of family; religion.

Opposition to traditional moral values; support for divorce, abortion etc.; otherwise as 603, but negative.

Enforcement of all laws; actions against crime; support and resources for police; tougher attitudes in courts.

Appeal for national effort and solidarity; need for society to see itself as united; appeal for public spiritedness; decrying anti-social attitudes in times of crisis; support for the public interest.

Cultural diversity, communalism, cultural plurality and pillarization; preservation of autonomy of religious, linguistic heritages within the country including special educational provisions.

Enforcement or encouragement of cultural integration; otherwise as 607, but negative.

Favourable references to labour groups, working class, unemployed; support for trade unions; good treatment of manual and other employees.

Support for agriculture and farmers; any policy aimed specifically at benefiting these.

Favourable references to middle class, professional groups, such as physicians or lawyers; old and new middle class.

Favourable references to underprivileged minorities who are defined neither in economic nor in demographic terms, e.g. the handicapped, homosexuals, immigrants, etc.

Favourable mentions of, or need for, assistance to women, old people, young people, linguistic groups, etc.; special interest groups of all kinds.

Manifesto Research Group Standard Coding Categories Used to Code Party Election Programmes

Each sentence is counted into one of the following categories:

Manifesto Research Group
Standard Coding Categories Used to Code Party Election Programmes